As did other communities elsewhere in Africa, the Yoruba people migrated within and beyond West Africa. Today, the Yoruba are spread mostly in the southwest of Nigeria, living in states like Ekiti, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo, and Lagos. They are also found in Kogi and Kwara states in north-central Nigeria.
For the ancient Yoruba (and contemporary), Ile-Ife, was the most significant cultural center.
Where do we find Ile-Ife today? In Osun state.
The Yoruba consider it a holy city, and a birthplace for mankind. It is the oldest Yoruba city, founded in 500 BC; it became a thriving metropolis by the 11th century AD and a center of an influential city-state.
Ile-Ife means a place of dispersion; or the navel of the world. The Yoruba believe the city was founded by Oduduwa and Obalata, the deities. Obalata created the first humans out of clay, and Oduduwa became the first divine king. The Yoruba had their version of the Creation Story.
Over the centuries, other city-states evolved, claiming descent from Ile-Ife; this continues today. And the Yoruba peoples of south-western Nigeria and southern Benin did not consider themselves a single group in the past.
“Yoruba” as a description was first used (by the British) to reference the people of Oyo Kingdom, which at one time dominated south-western Nigeria and southern Benin. This was because of similarities in language and culture, among the groups in this region, descending from Ile-Ife.
The Yoruba, as a people, are neighbored to the west, by the Fon and their kinfolks, the Ewe and the Popo (present-day Togo, and Benin Republic). Collectively, the Ewe and the Popo are known as the Aja.
Tradition says, the Aja kingdom dynasties originated in Tado, in today’s Togo. Further, the myth goes: a Tado princess mated with a leopard spirit and birthed Agasu, whose descendants founded the kingdoms of Ardra and Dahomey (both, the modern Benin Republic).
Between the 12th-13th century, Tado was developed as a city; Ardra by the 16th century, and Dahomey by the 17th.
While the Fon and Yoruba cultures have interacted for centuries–in times of war and in times of trade–both cultures are distinct. Still, the Fon share many aspects of Yoruba culture, including gods and spirits. Correspondingly, Yoruba culture has influenced Fon’s; indeed, some versions of Aja (Fon’s kinfolks) origin stories, claim that the first Tado king was Yoruba.
Early Ife
But how was life in ancient Ife?
According to Yoruba mythology, as we have mentioned, the city of Ile-Ife is “the navel of the world.” The Creation story happened here, and Yoruba descendancy began. The gods Oduduwa and Obatala descended from heaven to create earth and its inhabitants. And Oduduwa became the first ruler, oni, of Ile-Ife. Even today, Yoruba kings trace ancestry to Oduduwa.
Artistic and archaeological evidence show that the Yoruba culture of early Ile-Ife dates between AD 1000 and 1400, a period known as the Pavement period. Prior to this, two other earlier periods exist, which are the Archaic period (up to 800 AD), and a Pre-Pavement period (c. 800 AD to 1000 AD).
So what happened during the two earlier periods?
From the earliest period (The Archaic Period), we find several stone monoliths. The biggest of them is a granite gneiss known as Opa Oranmiyan, at a height of ~5.5 meters. It is figured with spiral-headed iron nails in a trident pattern.
It is not known exactly what the monolith represented, but its name (Opa Oranmiyan), meaning “the staff of Oranmiyan,” is recent.
Going by the Yoruba myth, Oduduwa’s son–Oranmiyan–founded the dynasties of both the kingdom of Benin and the Yoruba city-state of Oyo.
In the subsequent period (Pre-Pavement), we find artifacts that depict human and animal subjects; one of which is known today in Ile-Ife as Idena, the “gatekeeper.”
The later period (The Pavement Period) then comes on in the 11th century, during which Ile-Ife grew into an important urban center. Rivalries with other city states increased at the start of the 13th century, and Ile-Ife protected itself with defensive walls and moats. This periodic clashes with other city-states may have influenced Yoruba’s culture of living in walled cities surrounded by farmlands.
In the early Ile-Ife, the palace would be constructed in the center of the city; and the city itself would be enclosed by two concentric walls. Then shrines would be found near the palace, and other sections of the city.
It is obvious that the city’s architecture was planned. Major roads radiated outward, linking Ile-Ife to neighboring cities. Marked by a large gateway that likely housed guards, each opening in the moat and wall complex, was both a military post and a ritually consecrated space.
The basic unit of architecture seems to have been a square or rectangular courtyard surrounded by a veranda. Most homes would have been formed of several such courtyards, while the palace probably had great numbers of them.
At least one palace courtyard of great size accommodated a large portion of the population for ceremonies. The most important courtyards in palaces, shrines, and gateways were decorated with elaborate mosaic pavements of stone and pottery shards.
Paved courtyards were sacred spaces, as ritually buried pottery has been recovered from such courtyards. From one courtyard, fourteen buried pots were found. They were fitted with lids depicting the heads of different animals.
Likely, most of the art of ancient Ile-Ife was created for the royal court, including figures that may have been intended as portraits of rulers, officials, and their families.
In this latter period, cast metal works were also produced, of bronzes, brass and pure copper. How were the metals sourced? Through the trans-Sahara trade networks that extended to northwest Africa and other trade routes connecting central Europe. These works were produced through the lost-wax process.
How did the Lost-wax process work?
First of all, the lost-wax casting process (which is still in use today) was first used in the 4th millennium BC, in the Near East (early China). It was then propagated to other civilizations, including Kemet–ancient Egypt. South of River Niger, lost-wax casting was employed at a site in Igbo-Ukwu, circa the 10th century AD.
Here, is how the process works:
A heat-resistant mass of clay is formed, approximating the shape of the sculpture-to-be
This mass is then covered with a layer of wax, which the sculptor models, carves, and incises
Wax rods and a wax cup are attached to the base of the completed wax model to prepare it for casting
A thin layer of finely ground liquid clay is painted on the wax model, and the entire assembly is then covered with increasingly thick layers of clay
When the clay is completely dry, the assembly is heated to melt out the wax, leaving an empty image or mold of the sculpture for the molten metal to fill, and channels where the wax rods have been to allow the metal to be poured in
The mold is turned upside down to receive the molten metal, which is generally a copper alloy approximating brass
When the metal has cooled, the outer clay casing and inner clay core are broken up and removed, freeing the brass sculpture.
After the pouring channels are filed off, the image is ready for final polishing
A sculpture produced with this method is unique, for the mold is destroyed in the process.
The most remarkable sculpture of this period was found in a shrine on the banks of the River Niger, near Tada. It was made of almost pure copper, circa 1,300 AD.
Oral histories from the Igala people, report that this extraordinary piece, amongst a set of others, was sent from Ife to Tada, as a token of authority; or stolen as a trophy of war.
Copper is exceedingly difficult to cast, and the flawless casting of this mask is a tribute to the high level of technical skill attained by Ife artists.
The mask is said to represent Obalufon II, the third ruler of Ife, who is credited with introducing the techniques of casting.
The work is kept on an altar in the palace of the present-day oni of Ife, where it is believed to have resided since its creation some five hundred to seven hundred years ago.
Early Owo
To the southeast of Ile-Ife, lies the city of Owo, about 130 kilometers away. It was a powerful city state with wide influence. Historical artifacts suggest that Owo was culturally tied to Ife. Indeed, narrations from Owo claim that the kingdom was founded from Ife, and that its first ruler, Oba or Olowo, was the youngest son of Oduduwa, the Ile-Ife deity.
A number of terracotta sculptures have been found here, dated to the early 15th century, which corresponds to the Pavement period of Ife art. Some of the Owo terracottas resemble those from Ife, while others, reflect the style of those from the Kingdom of Benin in the south.
The early art in Owo deeply portrays the theme of sacrifice. In those arts, we see the depiction of animals, such as chicken offerings. Sacrifice was highly considered in the Yoruba religious practices; especially if the sacrifice brought prosperity and peace. We must note here that, even in other cultures across the world, as well as in religious mythologies, like the Christian mythology, sacrifice is highly regarded.
If there was a greater price to be paid to appease the gods, the Yoruba would make a human sacrifice. Strangers or slaves would then be offered as sacrifice, as it was taboo to sacrifice a native person. From the artifacts, we find a terracotta sculpture, depicting a basket of decapitated heads, who must have been strangers, sacrificed to the gods.
We also find a close connection between the traditions of Owo and Benin. This must have been the case for centuries. Owo was a major center of ivory carving, and some Owo carvers worked in Benin. Stories of origin in Owo claim that the first olowo, that is, paramount ruler, was both a son of Oduduwa the deity, and also the brother of the ruler of Benin.
The ivory carvers of Owo, created the udamalore sword, which is a prestigious ceremonial weapon, made of ivory. It is still worn today by a paramount ruler, the olowo, and other high-ranking leaders, in important cultural festivals.
Whoever wears the sword, comes from a prominent family, and is respected across the kingdom. An example of an important festival would be the igogo, which re-enacts the early life of an early queen of Owo.
The udamalore sword can be made of other materials like brass or iron, but the most prestigious material is ivory.
Esie
From Yoruba’s past, another center, the town of Esie, stands out. Why?
The largest collection of stone figures to ever been found in West Africa, was located in a sacred field outside the town of Esie. Unlike Ife and Owo, which have been fairly understood by art scholars through archeology and oral histories, Esie, and other details of Yoruba’s past, have stayed unknown.
The stone figures of Esie, comprise over one thousand pieces that lay on the aforementioned field, one hundred kilometers, to the north of Ile-Ife. One of the stone figures is a big, sitting person, with hands on the knees, ornamented with necklaces and armlets.
In height, the stone figures range from a few inches to several feet. The majority of the figures are of people, both female and male, with intricate hairstyles or headgear. Also, different facial types and scarification patterns are depicted. Many of the people figures are seated, some play instruments, others bear weapons. Other figures depict animals.
Where are the stone figures today?
They are placed in a museum at the original site. The local people derive religious meaning from these stones. The stones are considered to be the owners of the community land, the overseers of community welfare, and providers of fertility. And a priest watches over them, in the museum.
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As we share this African art corpus, we express our deepest gratitude to great art historians, like Frank Willett, Peter Garlake, Dennis Duerden and Monica Visona; whose works have formed the foundation of this story. On other online sources we also relied.
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Coming soon: Focus on Yoruba (Part II).
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Part of this writing was contributed by Denis Chiedo.
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